The emergence of 5G high-speed wireless access enables unprecedented connectivity, allowing industries to digitise their operations on an exceptional scale. The research aims to establish the relationship between 5G adoption and digitisation in two (2) sector verticals: smart cities (within its smart government) and smart agriculture. Technology adoption was evaluated using the Technology, Organization, and Environment (TOE) framework by assessing technological constructs such as hardware ease of use and perceived usefulness. The organisational construct evaluates organisations' financial capacity, skilled workforce, and 5G awareness. The external environmental construct examines the regulatory environment and the role of 5G service providers. These constructs provide a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing the adoption of 5G technologies for digitisation. An international benchmarking of top countries with extensive 5G deployment within the TOE framework is elaborated by examining the opportunities and challenges they encountered and their strategies. The deducted findings and recommendations elucidate valuable insights for Malaysia and other countries to contextualise and adopt best practices based on these three (3) constructs.

5G technology differentiates from previous mobile evolutions by offering enhanced mobile broadband with speeds up to 20 times faster than 4G, ultra-reliable and low-latency communications ideal for real-time response applications, and massive machine-type communications that can handle a more significant number of devices simultaneously, crucial for Internet of Things (IoT). 5G services also improve reliability, allowing network slicing for customised services, enabling network virtualisation for easier management and deployments, and leveraging edge computing to reduce latency and improve performance. Moreover, 5G introduced private networks, providing dedicated wireless connectivity for specific organisations, catering to enterprises or industrial use cases that require high bandwidth, low latency, and secure connectivity.

On 22 February 2021, Malaysia announced the deployment of the 5G spectrum and infrastructure instead of relying on private telecom carriers (Shukry, 2021); the execution is implemented by the establishment of the Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) called Digital Nasional Berhad (DNB). It is a government-owned entity that grants access to frequency within the 5G spectrum to Mobile Network Operators (MNOs) (Olofsgård & Göransson, 2022). The impact of a 5G network deployment by DNB is projected to contribute RM122 billion to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and create 148,000 jobs by 2030, with varying impacts across sectors in GDP increases and a challenging employment landscape with net job losses (DNB, 2021). Additionally, PETRONAS's pioneering use of a 5G private network at Regasification Terminal in Sungai Udang, Melaka, exemplifies the nation's commitment to digital innovation and operational efficiency, aligning with the Ekonomi MADANI and the New Industrial Master Plan 2030. The country has achieved over 70 per cent 5G coverage in populated areas and is targeting 80 per cent by 2023.

Implementing 5G private networks for different industry verticals can support many new and innovative services. As Malaysia is currently investing and deploying the nation's 5G infrastructure, to address the specific opportunities and challenges in implementing 5G, there needs to be a study on the best practices implemented in other countries in deploying specific 5G private networks. In addition, it needs to be clarified how different countries are approaching the digitisation of their industries concerning 5G. This research addresses this gap by benchmarking the 5G implementation and digitisation opportunities for selected vertical industries.

The following section outlines the key research objectives for the study on the adoption and digitisation of 5G technologies to understand the current state of 5G deployment in specific countries and provide practical recommendations for adopting 5G technologies in the Malaysian context.

5G technology represents a transformative leap in mobile communications, setting new standards in connectivity and bandwidth, surpassing those of the previous 4G networks. According to Forge and Vu (2020), enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB) enables 5G to provide unprecedented data speeds, reaching up to 20 Gbps, reaching up to 20 Gbps, which is about 20 times faster than 4G. This enhancement is crucial for supporting high-bandwidth applications like streaming high-definition video and facilitating more immersive digital experiences. Ultra-Reliable Low Latency Communications (uRLLC) offer significantly reduced latency compared to earlier networks, enabling real-time communication and responsiveness. Massive Machine-Type Communications (mMTC), the third pillar, allows 5G networks to handle a vastly greater number of devices simultaneously. This aspect is essential for the expanding IoT ecosystem, where countless devices, from home appliances to industrial sensors, require reliable and simultaneous connectivity.

Overall, 5G is more than just a step up in speed and efficiency; it enables new business models and technological possibilities across various industry verticals (Deloitte China & China Unicom Smart City Research Institute, 2020). Unlike traditional cellular networks designed for public use, 5G private networks offer dedicated, reliable wireless connectivity tailored to organisations managed by them or a third-party provider (Salam & Dieter, 2022). These networks are particularly suited for smart vertical applications and emphasise machine-to-machine connectivity (Forge & Vu, 2020a; Damsgaard et al., 2022). Lastly, 5G private networks utilise edge computing, which processes data closer to the user or device reduces latency and improves system performance, rather than relying on cloud computing (Deloitte China & China Unicom Smart City Research Institute, 2020; Hong et al., 2021; Salam & Dieter, 2022; Mangra et al., 2023).

This research mainly uses a systematic literature review by collecting data from available resources online, mainly from secondary research sources, i.e., reports, case studies, and industry publications. The project alignment was done in the first month of the project. The critical papers in this research are collated using the Systematic Literature Review (SLR) methodology, where articles are filtered and screened. The data collected are analysed to identify the industry's best practices, challenges, and opportunities related to technology adoption. Atlas. ti software is used to identify patterns and relationships within the data, mainly using statistical techniques and literature analysis. Recommendations tailored to Malaysia's specific needs and goals should be supported by benchmarking data. To give a grounding recommendation, we contacted the industry players to gain specific insights on the 5G deployment challenges. A semi-structured interview has been implemented from the middle of September until November 2023 to gather qualitative data.

Based on Figure 1, this section highlights the process of obtaining the most relevant articles, including the search strategy and criteria for inclusion and exclusion.

Figure 2 depicts the Technology, Organization, and Environment (TOE) framework and its respective ecosystem. The technological construct focuses on Hardware/Device Ease of Use and Perceived Usefulness. These elements encompass the tangible aspects of technology that impact its adoption, including the user-friendliness of hardware devices and the perceived benefits of using 5G technologies.

The organisational construct assesses Financial Capacity, Skilled Workforce, and Awareness of 5G Technology. These aspects examine the organisation's or country's readiness to adopt and integrate 5G technologies. Financial capacity reflects the economic resources available for investing in 5G technologies. The skilled workforce evaluates the competence and expertise of the human resources within the organisation or country. 5G technology awareness encapsulates how organisations disseminate knowledge and create awareness about 5G technologies among their stakeholders.

The external environmental construct explores the Regulatory Environment and 5G service providers. The regulatory environment assesses the existing norms, laws, and regulations that can influence the adoption of 5G technologies. The 5G service providers represent the three (3) evolving roles: infrastructure providers, vertical solutions providers, and platform service providers.

This section comprehensively discusses and illuminates the results of our in-depth comparative analysis, centring around the adoption and integration of 5G technology across various sectors from various countries worldwide. A thorough exploration and insightful commentary on the experiences of multiple countries, with their unique socio-political and economic landscape, offers a distinct approach to implementing 5G technology.

Integrating 5G technology brings about transformative implications for various sectors such as agriculture, urban development, and government services. In agriculture, 5G promises enhanced productivity and efficiency through precision farming and Information and Communications Technology (ICT) focused practices despite challenges in regions with limited 4G accessibility. For smart cities, tackling population growth and resource management challenges by leveraging 5G for robust connectivity and fostering a transition from manual to intelligent services via IoT and Big Data integration is the focus of 5G digitalisation. In the realm of smart government, 5G is set to revolutionise sectors like security, health, transport, and energy services by improving connectivity and efficiency. It is noted that addressing challenges such as inadequate ICT infrastructure, public mistrust, and digital divides necessitates a paradigm shift towards improved service delivery and business process changes to leverage 5G technology.

However, the practical implementation of 5G in smart agriculture, particularly in developing countries, requires further development and refinement (Wu, 2022; Kota & Giambene, 2019; Arrubla-Hoyos et al., 2022; Meng & Cheng, 2019). Despite the broad application range of 5G, from unmanned aerial vehicles and realtime monitoring to Artificial intelligence (AI) powered robots and data analytics, challenges remain, particularly in regions with limited 4G accessibility, including rural areas in developed countries like the United Kingdom (Tang et al., 2021). In addition, the entire practical implementation of 5G in agriculture still necessitates extensive exploration and development (Meng & Cheng, 2019).

Furthermore, the journey towards fully realising the potential of e-government is fraught with challenges spanning organisational, political, social, and infrastructural dimensions (Zeebaree et al., 2023; Dumont et al., 2017; Wamoto, 2015). Critical issues such as inadequate ICT infrastructure, flawed project management, design shortcomings, and a digital divide hinder the effective implementation of e-government services (Alzahrani et al., 2017). Moreover, public mistrust, fuelled by security, privacy, and a lack of awareness concerns, further complicates the situation (Denford et al., 2019; Zeebaree et al., 2023). Addressing these challenges necessitates a paradigm shift towards improved service delivery and changes in business logic, underpinned by the capabilities offered by 5G technology (Sadiq & Governatori, 2015; Chiarini, 2016; Siddiquee, 2016).

The article by Mangra et al., 2023, emphasises the critical role of agriculture in global food supply, rural development, and climate resiliency, highlighting its extensive reach across urban and nonurban industries worldwide. It proposes a transdisciplinary framework integrating ecosystems, networks, and governance to manage the agriculture ecosystem sustainably, facilitating collaboration among diverse stakeholders. The integration of 5G technology extends the ecosystem's reach and effectiveness, especially in food distribution, which often involves transportation over large distances due to factors like producer location, urban demand, and environmental conditions. In addition, a transdisciplinary framework for the agriculture ecosystem was elaborated in (IEEE, 2022)., emphasising the integration of various network components to enhance the food supply chain, rural development, and climate resiliency. In summary, the transdisciplinary approach using 5G and future networks is central to aligning and enhancing various stages of the agriculture ecosystem, thereby addressing key areas such as the food supply chain, rural development, and climate resilience.

The 5G smart city ecosystem is integral to modernising urban areas, acting as the foundation for the IoT. This ecosystem is driven by 5G technology, enabling extensive data collection and transmission essential for efficient city operations (Huseien & Shah, 2022). Within the smart city framework, a triple-helix model highlights the integration between municipal administration, research organisations, and Information and ICT providers, with ICTs being crucial for connecting innovative solutions and enabling sustainable, smart administration (Charalabidis et al., 2019). Globally, examples like Singapore's Smart Nation initiative and China's smart city development stages showcase the diverse applications of 5G in smart cities (Deloitte China & China Unicom Smart City Research Institute, 2020; Huseien & Shah, 2022). Smart city operators, as integrators and creators of operational ecosystems, utilise a “capital + technology” model, leveraging big data, cloud computing, and 5G networks (Deloitte China & China Unicom Smart City Research Institute, 2020). This approach creates efficient IoT platforms and supports the diverse requirements of smart cities.

In Malaysia, Putrajaya, Smart City planning is outlined in its Smart City Blueprint (Putrajaya, 2023). The Putrajaya Smart City framework focuses on enhancing quality of life and sustainability through the integration of the IoT and other ICT innovations, structured around seven (7) key domains: Smart Transportation and mobility, Smart Home & Environment, Smart Government Services, Smart Infrastructure & Utilities, Smart Safety & Security, Smart Economy, and Smart Community.

In the early stages of the 5G rollout in South Korea, KT, led by Lee Jong-sik, faced several challenges. These included the struggle to commercialise anticipated innovative services like AR, VR, and autonomous driving. The initial 5G specs were rushed, leading to vendor implementation difficulties and performance that was not significantly better than LTE (Waring, 2023). Establishing a robust ecosystem was challenging, especially with immature device technologies or technology readiness (AlRaeesi AlBalooshi & Habibur Rahman, 2019; Albalooshia et al., 2021; Tang et al., 2021; Damsgaard et al., 2022; Naqvi et al., 2022; Shim et al., 2022; Waring, 2023). A local industry representative also noted the availability of 5G-enabled hardware that is still nascent, where the hardware cost has not met the economics of scale for mass adoption for enterprise applications. This contributed to the slow adoption of 5G private networks.

This research evaluates the adoption of 5G technology in countries with unique approaches and sectors of focus. It is noted that China, a global leader in 5G deployment, integrates this technology into its ambitious smart city initiatives. Post 2010, the exploration phase saw the publication of development plans and the introduction of pilot cities for smart city experimentation, addressing the initial challenges of information silos and homogeneity. The 13th Five (5) Year Plan in 2016 marked a pivotal point, emphasising the need for a new type of smart city and the transition from conceptualisation to practical implementation, supported by the establishment of smart city evaluation models and national standards.

Singapore is actively investing and embracing 5G technology to enhance its standing as a leading smart city through various strategic initiatives across critical sectors such as healthcare, manufacturing, and maritime. According to Huseien & Shah (2022), the government has allocated SG$ 40 million to develop the required infrastructure and ecosystem, supporting multi-year research programmes and collaborations between educational and technological institutions like the National University of Singapore (NUS) and Singapore Technologies (ST). These initiatives aim to create a “people-oriented smart Singapore,” leveraging 5G's low latency and high bandwidth capabilities to drive innovation in AI, robotics, VR property viewing, and advanced educational tools (Deloitte China & China Unicom Smart City Research Institute, 2020; Huseien & Shah, 2022).

Germany is proactively establishing itself as a leader in the 5G domain, emphasising innovative applications notably, in the field of automobile manufacturing. A significant partnership has been formed between Ericsson, Telefónica Germany, and Mercedes-Benz to establish a private 5G network at the Sindelfingen plant, to enhance production efficiency and precision (Pätzold, 2019). The partnership faced market challenges over the past decade, with many 4G LTE-enabled applications failing to capture significant global market share. Nevertheless, the country has shown resilience and progress in 5G deployment. Lastly, South Korea, despite facing market challenges, shows resilience and progress in 5G deployment, with a focus on its telecommunications infrastructure. For instance, Korea Telecom pioneered a trial 5G network to support the 2018 Winter Olympics in Seoul, demonstrating the network's capability across multiple cities. Additionally, they introduced a cloud-supported Augmented Reality (AR) / Virtual Reality (VR) gaming platform, leveraging the enhanced capabilities of 5G technology.

This section dissects the critical aspects of 5G technology adoption in various industry verticals across different countries. The analysis is segmented into TOE Environmental factors, each presenting unique elements that influence the adoption and implementation of 5G technology.

The adoption of 5G technology across various sectors, including smart cities, smart agriculture, and smart government, heavily depends on technological aspects like hardware ease of use and perceived usefulness and is elaborated in the list of literature in Figure 3. Devices employed in these sectors should be user-friendly, intuitive, and supportive of all users. Furthermore, the perceived usefulness of 5G technology is significant as it has the potential to revolutionise these sectors by enabling high-speed, reliable data connectivity, supporting digital transformation, and fostering innovation. However, achieving these benefits requires investing in robust network infrastructure, promoting collaborative research, and developing a user-friendly real-time platform to process and disseminate data.

The hardware and devices utilised in 5G innovative applications must be user-friendly to ensure they are accessible and efficient for all users, regardless of their technical proficiency. Leveraging 5G technology in smart city or agriculture applications must aim to enhance user experience and accessibility. It is crucial to focus on intuitive design and user support. Devices should feature simple, intuitive user interfaces and ergonomic designs to facilitate ease of use, reduce strain during prolonged usage, and ensure comfort for all users.

5G-enabled technologies will introduce a safer, more innovative, and more efficient era in transportation (Bailey, 2023). The main application of 5G in the personal automobile sector is simple; cars that drive themselves. While this idea is undoubtedly exciting, there are also efficient implications. This can grant mobility to populations unable to drive, e.g., the youth and elderly (Bailey, 2023). Going forward, 5G will combine with single-vehicle intelligence and C-V2X to enable application scenarios, such as vehicle-road collaboration, collision within or beyond the line of sight, precise parking and smart routing strategy, to achieve full autonomy in driving and significantly improve the travel experience of people (Deloitte China & China Unicom Smart City Research Institute, 2020).

5G technology, with its faster speeds and response times, enhances ease of use. It offers a versatile and convenient single communication technology for indoor and outdoor applications, benefiting sectors like precision agriculture (van der Waaij et al., 2021). Digitalisation and robotisation may aid sensor placement to retrieve data on yield, soil, and fertilisation (Mangra et al., 2023). The integration of 5G technology in smart agriculture, with aerial inspection systems, empowers advisory services and Farm Management and Information Systems (FMIS) with richer sensor data, enabling data-driven suggestions based on previous crop cycles for increased yields, reduced inputs, and lower environmental footprint over time (Shi et al., 2019, 2021; Damsgaard et al., 2022).

The perceived usefulness of 5G technology spans across various sectors, such as smart agriculture, smart cities, and smart governance. It enables precision agriculture, improving farm-to-market efficiency, reducing waste, and fostering innovation (Mangra et al., 2023). In smart cities, it supports an integrated security system, enhances healthcare networks, and facilitates smart transportation, enhancing safety, efficiency, and sustainability. In smart governance, 5G aids in developing an integrated smart urban platform for real-time data collection, processing, and dissemination, facilitating more responsive, efficient, and transparent governance.

5G technology and its upcoming advancements, including 5G-Advanced and 6G, are poised to enhance smart agriculture and rural development (Mangra et al., 2023). Precision agriculture will be revolutionised with high-speed and voluminous data connectivity, optimising farming operations, reducing waste, and fostering innovation from farm to market. In rural areas, 5G promises to extend and deepen the reach of services, improving access to markets, services, and essential healthcare through telehealth, thus catalysing rural development (Hecht, 2022; Mangra et al., 2023). Moreover, sharing crop health and environmental data within farming communities can enhance relationships and trust, leading to better product pricing and local economic growth.

A patrolling robot or robot hospital with advanced cameras and thermal imaging can cover roads up to 800-1,000 meters long, operating continuously for seven (7) to eight (8) hours. The high bandwidth and low latency of 5G enable public security authorities to assess the environment, issue commands, and remotely control the robot, improving city safety and substantial cost savings in patrolling manpower. Furthermore, city roads equipped with cameras, weather sensors, and smart traffic devices, interconnected through 5G's network slicing technology, feed data into a comprehensive system that manages traffic flow efficiently, provides real-time updates on road conditions, and enhances safety by facilitating communication between vehicles and pedestrians. This holistic approach to smart traffic management optimises various aspects of urban transportation (Deloitte China & China Unicom Smart City Research Institute, 2020).

The integration of 5G promises numerous benefits, including potential cost reductions, substantial savings, and GDP contribution. The adoption of 5G technology necessitates significant financial investments which can be seen in countries like Singapore and China. However, this adoption varies significantly between high-income and low-to-middle-income countries, considering potential risks to network service providers' market financing capacities and firm values. The expansion of 5G technology is also expected to initiate a substantial shift in the labour force, driving automation across sectors and creating numerous job opportunities. Even though 5G technology enables the transformation of various industry sectors by efficiently enhancing mobile connectivity, the industry's perception of 5G adoption may shift from enthusiastic to lukewarm. Such perception depends on numerous factors, including technology rollout, implementation effectiveness, and digitalisation maturity of different sectors. Internal organisation, public awareness, and understanding of 5G technology still require improvement to counter its adoption and acceptance challenges. This is elaborated in the list of literature in Figure 4.

Betancourt (2021) analysed eight (8) obstacles that interfere with the 5G deployment: cost, return on investment (ROI), business model, the average return per user (ARPU), regulatory policies, spectrum, transport, and security. This is mainly because 5G systems are costly (Forge & Vu, 2020b) compared to previous 4G deployments due to the higher number of sites and power consumption, contributing to higher capital and operating expenditures. The 5G also competes with licence-exempt spectrum-based technologies, such as Wi-Fi and ZigBee, for broadband services and high-speed industrial automation. These alternatives are cheaper with devices and machines that are already ubiquitous, with these communication chipsets having proven track records.

Singapore has identified several critical verticals for 5G adoption, including healthcare, manufacturing, and maritime. It has set aside SG $40 million to develop the necessary supporting infrastructure and ecosystem. The engineering teams at the National University of Singapore (NUS) and Singapore Technologies (ST) have signed a $6.6 million multi-year research programme deal to create a “people-oriented smart Singapore” soon (Huseien & Shah, 2022). In China, there were around 180,000 buses and trams in Shanghai by the end of 2018. A 60 per cent fleet modification and development of a new management system would push the total investment to nearly 10 billion RMB (Deloitte China & China Unicom Smart City Research Institute, 2020).

As for smart farming technologies, which require high investment costs, better rural coverage and connectivity, and the possibility of higher bandwidth to handle the vast data among many sensors and devices deployed remotely (Tang et al., 2021), such systems are usually beyond the reach of small and medium scale farmers and plantation holders. ADLINK’s MicroRAN 5G private network addresses this issue by offering small and medium enterprises a compact, secure, and efficient solution for modernising manufacturing processes, integrating Edge computing, 5G, Wi-Fi, and Ethernet technologies.

It is an easy-to-deploy architecture, capable of handling up to 25 5G end nodes and unlimited Wi-Fi/wired users, simplifies infrastructure and enhances operational efficiency in smart manufacturing (OpenSystems Media, 2023). The interview with one (1) Malaysian agriculture manufacturer informs that there are real financial barriers to procuring basic smart sensor systems for small producers. The usage of smart agriculture has been pioneered by listed plantation companies such as Sime Darby and companies that have collaborated on technology, as listed by Malaysia Digital Economy Corporation (MDEC) Malaysia.

As 5G infrastructure and service setup are generally expensive compared to other wireless connectivity due to the protected spectrum and higher quality of services guaranteed, mergers and partnerships are one of the approaches to reduce the expenditures incurred. In the US, Sprint launched True Mobile 5G in metropolitan areas of nine (9) US markets. The company continues to advocate for a merger with T-Mobile to accelerate the deployment of a ubiquitous, nationwide 5G network that includes coverage in rural locations. The combined company has the resources and technology to build a 5G network that fuels innovation across every industry, dramatically increasing competition and allowing new economic growth (Pätzold, 2019). This benefits the rural areas with single providers because of the high investment costs and potential market revenues (Mangra et al., 2023).

In the Netherlands, a country with a long-standing tradition of agricultural cooperatives that share risks and revenues, the 5G connectivity infrastructure can be owned or guaranteed by a cooperative of, say, on-farm equipment suppliers. Cooperatives like CEMA and the European Agricultural Machinery Association could generate the equity necessary for investments and/or arrange for a supplier to provide connectivity as a service (van der Waaij et al., 2021). ZTE has cooperated with more than 60 operators worldwide in 5G and accumulated ample experience in providing products and services for the commercial deployment of 5G networks across the globe.

The study by TNO elaborated on the deadlock between 5G rural deployment by network service providers and global agriculture manufacturers that produce 5G-supported equipment. This chicken-and-egg dilemma, where both manufacturers that require connectivity in rural areas and telecom providers that do not have enough customers in most rural areas hinder 5G innovations for global applications in agriculture. The study recommends that telecom operators, larger farm equipment manufacturers and industry associations partner to solve the solutions deadlock (van der Waaij et al., 2021).

The ROI obtained from deploying 5G technology is a critical factor that necessitates significant initial financial investments across numerous industries. The Global System for Mobile Communications Association (GSMA) predicts that 5G’s impact on the world’s GDP will become evident within five (5) years of its 2019 launch, amounting to $2.2 trillion by 2034 and culminating in a mature ecosystem with profound global economic implications. The process and pattern of deployment of 5G networks for low-income and medium-income countries is likely to be somewhat different for high-income countries. Moreover, most low-income and middle-income nations realise that, like the higher-income nations, there is a strategic importance in embracing the digital economy for their growth and competitiveness, so the attitude towards change through “high-tech” is quite positive (Forge & Vu, 2020b). Moreover, existing technologies in this market offer high quality of service (QoS) at a much lower cost., so the use of 5G uRLLC may compete only if it is cost-effective, which is dependent on mass production, requiring a major ecosystem in which competing technologies have already been built.

Effective infrastructure and network sharing could result in a substantial 40 per cent reduction in overall management costs (BEREC, 2011). However, operators still grapple with the economic challenges of expanding and deploying this new infrastructure, which involves dealing with millions or even billions of small cells. To tackle this issue, operators must carefully assess user coverage and revenue potential per cell site to determine the most cost-efficient deployment approach (Guevara & Auat Cheein, 2020). Moreover, since 4G LTE and 5G networks may use the same frequency spectrum via dynamic spectrum sharing, 5G technology can lower data costs than the current 4G costs.

From the perspective of the initial stage of corporate product innovation and strategic transformation, due to the high uncertainty surrounding 5G technology, the related investment by and research and development (R&D) activities of telecommunication operators are likely to affect their firm value negatively (Jeon et al., 2022). One (1) example is that top high-tech firms from South Korea have experienced several market setbacks (with a few exceptions) for 4G LTE-enabled device applications. They have failed to corner any notable global market share (Gillispie, 2023), even though South Korea regularly ranks as one (1) of the world’s most innovative economies over the past decade. Another possible hidden cost is related to cybersecurity issues, where purchasing equipment from the cheapest vendors, most notably Huawei, will involve high monitoring costs down the line due to cyber espionage and cyberattack concerns (Panza et al., 2020). In addition to rising energy costs around the globe, service providers and businesses have started to consider power consumption regarding 5G deployment decisions.

The expansion of 5G technology is significantly reshaping the global workforce, creating a demand for skilled professionals adept in this advanced technology. By 2035, 5G is projected to generate over 22 million jobs worldwide, with a ripple effect in job creation across various sectors. In Malaysia, 5G deployment could create up to 737,000 jobs and reskill over 544,000 jobs in the next decade. This technological shift requires a workforce skilled in managing and integrating 5G with AI and machine learning (ML), leading to a transformation from traditional roles to more complex, technology-driven positions. Consequently, extensive retraining is necessary, with millions in China and the U.S. needing to adapt to these new roles. The integration of 5G is vital not only in enhancing labour productivity and efficiency but also in facilitating the transition to digital culture environments, underscoring the need for a workforce that is both skilled and adaptable to technological advancements. The workforce is undergoing a significant transformation due to the evolution of industries, shifting away from traditional roles towards managing devices and systems (Bailey, 2023; Mangra et al., 2023). Additionally, the advancement of 5G technology is driving a shift in skill requirements, with workers transitioning from repetitive tasks to more complex roles that involve overseeing technology-driven operations, including the integration of AI and ML for more efficient management activities (Mangra et al., 2023). Consequently, many workers, including an estimated 50 million in China and 11.5 million in the US, require retraining to adapt to these new roles (Kelly, 2020).

In August 2019, Huawei released its “Global Industry Vision” (GIV) report, which predicted that in the industrial sector, there would be 103 robots for every 10,000 employees (Huawei, 2019; Pätzold, 2019). Regarding Malaysia’s job impact of adopting 5G technology, specific sectors will see a certain number of jobs lost or avoided. 225,000 jobs are classified as lost or avoided within the Retail and Entertainment sector. In Manufacturing, this figure is 77,000; in the Public Sector and Government, the number is 7,000. Finally, the total number of jobs lost or avoided across various sectors due to the adoption of 5G technology is estimated to be 544,000 (DNB, 2021). In the context of e-government, 5G can improve communication networks and infrastructure, essential for the success of these initiatives. However, these projects are costly and risky, requiring a highly skilled workforce and substantial infrastructure development. Training and capability building is crucial, as many employees lack the necessary skills and experience for these advanced electronic systems (Zeebaree et al., 2023).

Many studies on e-government have identified several factors impeding the implementation and adoption of the system. Among them are lack of awareness, resistance to change, and lack of government plan and strategy (Zeebaree et al., 2023). To address the lack of awareness in China, the Smart City - Top Level Design Guide published in 2018 unifies the requirements of top-level design, with the design concepts and realisation process clearly explained. With digitalised government operations and streamlined processes, dealing with the government is easier for the people (Deloitte China & China Unicom Smart City Research Institute, 2020).

The demand for 5G technology adoption within organisations is contingent on various factors, including the extent of the 5G rollout and its effective implementation (Blind & Niebel, 2022). However, it is not straightforward, as alternative technologies might be better suited for certain applications, and there may not be a clear consumer demand for 5G-related products (Blackman & Forge, 2016). For instance, in Industrial IoT, alternative technologies can provide long-range, low-cost solutions without requiring significant data capacity, potentially rendering 5G unnecessary. Similarly, alternative technologies like LoRaWAN might fulfil smart agriculture and precision farming requirements without needing 5G. Therefore, organisational awareness and consideration of the specific technological needs play a pivotal role in determining the adoption of 5G (Bieser et al., 2020).

In the interview with the Indonesian smart agriculture solution provider, it is found that successful adoption is possible in green-house-based agriculture systems after careful study of the returns through improved yield, reduction of input cost and controlling (monitoring) the environmental variables as being done in smart farming. The farmers also need to move from the paradigm of production-focused farming to market-focused farming, where the production of high-value produce gives better returns. There is also a significant issue of the ageing workforce, where most farmers in Indonesia are above 40 years old, and smart agriculture can only be introduced to millennial farmers through interventions and reeducation. To expect a significant shift and adoption of digital farming will require a systemic assessment of the whole local ecosystem focusing on the internal dynamics of smart vertical organisation that owns and manages digital technology.

Challenges such as high capital expenditures, technical complexities, and uncertain business cases in developing countries and agricultural sectors necessitate strategic policymaking are elaborated in the list of literature in Figure 5. Moreover, the global disparity in 5G coverage, particularly in rural areas, creates economic disincentives for investment, leading to 5G underdevelopment. Government institutions, especially telecommunications regulators, play an important role in championing and nurturing 5G digital technology within the environmental construct. The regulatory environment for 5G private networks needs to be clear due to uncertainty in the implementation framework and policies. We also note that smart, collaborative platforms considering multiple stakeholders are critical for efficient policy operationalisation.

The spectrum allocation for 5G private networks is critical in developing and deploying these networks across various sectors. Several countries have designated specific frequency bands for private 5G use. For instance, the Netherlands has made the 3.5 GHz band available for private network licensing. At the same time, the United States has approved using the Citizens Broadband Radio Service (CBRS) spectrum in the 3.5GHz to 3.7GHz frequency range. Similarly, Japan and Germany have allocated specific bands in the 3.7GHz to 3.8GHz range for private 5G networks (Reeb, 2021).

The flexibility of 5G technology allows it to utilise licensed, unlicensed, and shared spectrum, catering to different industry needs. This adaptability is particularly significant for private networks in specific agriculture, manufacturing, and healthcare industries. For example, Ericsson and Telefónica Germany have collaborated to enable 5G car production for Mercedes-Benz via a private 5G network in Germany (Pätzold, 2019). The spectrum-sharing concept is also gaining traction, with schemes like License Spectrum Sharing and Licensed Shared Access emerging. These allow MNOs to share spectrum with incumbents such as satellite services, broadband wireless access, or military services. Countries like Indonesia have updated regulations to facilitate such sharing (Hutajulu et al., 2021).

However, there are challenges, such as the high cost of deploying private networks due to the need for dedicated infrastructure and spectrum leasing from national regulators (Damsgaard et al., 2022). Additionally, the disparity in global 5G coverage, particularly in rural areas, poses economic challenges for network service providers and hinders the development of 5G-based products in sectors like agriculture (van der Waaij et al., 2021). Hence, allocating and managing spectrum for 5G private networks are vital in fostering competition, encouraging private sector investment and innovation, and ensuring efficient use of scarce spectrum resources.

The deployment of 5G in rural areas, particularly to enhance agricultural productivity and rural development, faces several challenges and opportunities. Agriculture is crucial for the livelihoods of a significant portion of the world’s poor, who predominantly reside in rural areas (Mangra et al., 2023). While 5G technology promises to revolutionise rural connectivity by offering seamless communication capabilities, its implementation in these areas is complicated by various factors.

Firstly, existing communication infrastructure in rural and remote areas is often limited, with many areas lacking even basic 3G coverage (van der Waaij et al., 2021). The high initial infrastructure cost of 5G means its deployment is initially focused on densely populated urban areas. Extending 5G coverage to rural regions depends on national strategies, regional development plans, and public policies to increase connectivity (Arrubla-Hoyos et al., 2022). In countries like the Netherlands, government incentives and regulations are being used to ensure almost complete coverage, thereby facilitating the rollout of 5G in rural areas (van der Waaij et al., 2021).

However, the economic viability of 5G in rural areas is a concern (van der Waaij et al., 2021). The potential market in these regions is not large enough for multinational agricultural manufacturers to invest heavily in 5G development. This creates a dilemma, as enhanced connectivity through 5G is essential for the widespread adoption of advanced agricultural technologies, such as precision agriculture. Some solutions include establishing private 5G networks using specific frequency bands, like the 3.5 GHz band in the Netherlands, which can be particularly useful for farms outside the reach of public networks (van der Waaij et al., 2021).

Network service providers are integral to the 5G revolution, fulfilling roles as infrastructure providers, vertical solutions providers, and platform service providers, ensuring seamless integration and functionality within the smart cities’ ecosystem (Deloitte China & China Unicom Smart City Research Institute, 2020). For telecommunication service providers, their primary responsibilities as infrastructure builders involve setting up network facilities, expanding network coverage, increasing bandwidth and speed, and ensuring stable operations of smart city applications (Deloitte China & China Unicom Smart City Research Institute, 2020).

Additionally, the expansion of 5G networks is vital for meeting the connectivity needs of public utilities and residents and maintaining smart city functionality. This includes implementing long-distance fibre cabling, as seen in the Putrajaya Smart City Blueprint. Telecommunication operators also benefit from their natural advantages in network resources, operation, and management, especially in deploying edge computing facilities alongside base stations for cost-effective and efficient edge cloud deployment. This positioning gives them a competitive edge in data collection and processing, addressing bandwidth wastage and latency issues.

With 5G networks, service providers are now required to up their game by offering comprehensive services, combining communication networks with advanced technologies for tailored solutions in urban development, as vertical solution providers (Deloitte China & China Unicom Smart City Research Institute, 2020). This involves connectivity and enhances the application of smart technologies, which is crucial to developing smart city solutions. For instance, in collaboration with Ericsson, Qingdao Port, and ZPMC, China Unicom achieved a breakthrough by remotely controlling a 5G-connected quayside container crane at Qingdao Port, a world-first in a real production environment. Additionally, in Guizhou, China Unicom’s tourism incubation base is advancing the “tourism + IT” concept, focusing on three (3) key areas: tourism big data, IT system integration, and tourism industry operation with a core product named Tourism Big Data Platform, rolled out nationwide.

Finally, 5G service providers should become the “platform service operators” in smart city ecosystems (Deloitte China & China Unicom Smart City Research Institute, 2020). They facilitate the integration and connectivity of third-party applications with smart city platforms by opening API interfaces. This connectivity, enabled by the 5G network, allows sharing of network resources, data, and operational services. A notable example is smart transportation, where telematics applications are integrated with the platform, accessing real-time public transport data as seen in initiatives like Singapore’s digital government platform.

The integration of 5G technology has significant implications for governments worldwide Governments are pivotal in crafting regulatory frameworks and fostering stakeholder collaborations to harness these benefits effectively. Meanwhile, regulatory bodies play a pivotal role in managing resources like spectrum allocation (including private networks) and ensuring equitable infrastructure development, with a special emphasis on digital inclusion in rural areas. Here are some key implications:

Implications for network service providers can be summarised as follows:

Implications for smart agriculture providers are summarised as follows:

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